Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact

Leo Kanner was the beginning(a) who discovered Autism as a distinct case in the 1940s and brought out a report narrating the disorder which he stated as Autistic disturbances of emotional contact. (Keane, 2004) Presently Autism falls third among the list of barbarianhood disorders, after psychogenic handicap and language difficulties. (Zager, 2005) Autism is an intricate disorder of mental reading which is outlined in terms of air. Autism spectrum disorder ASD is a broad expression which covers a diverse mix of boorren having such grammatical constructions and numerous biological etiologies. Hollander, 2003)Diagnosis of ASD throne be unfailingly done when the child attains the age of 3, and in legitimate instances much previously by the age of 18 months. Researchers recommend that some(prenominal) children ultimately may be conclusively detected while attaining 1 year or much less than that. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) Collectively, ch ildren detected as having ASD can be distinguished by dearth of proficiency in vocal and non-vocal communications at an early age, socio-communicative function, and monotonous behaviors.Hollander, 2003) It is the p arnts who argon the first witnesses of these queer behaviors in their children. In certain instances, differences could be discovered congenitally, as being indifferent to humans or concentrating on a fact thing attentively for extended periods of m. The initial signals of an ASD can also be seen in children who appear to founder a normal development. If a charming, blathering child, at once turns mum, reserved, self-abusive, or aloof to sociable advances, matters be not right.The manifestation of some(prenominal) of the cautioning signals of ASD constitutes sufficient worry to get the child examined by a professional expert in dealing with the disorder. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) The National form of Mental Health NIML holds th at the accurate incidence of Autism is not known. Estimations range from 1 among 500 to 1 among 1,000 in this nation, and the morsel of autism affected persons is spiraling.Even though in that respect atomic number 18 differences on the issue of the rise in the number of children seen as possessing the indications of autism is because of the rise of the disorder itself, im turn up investigative tests, greater comprehensive classification procedures, wrong diagnosis, or some mishmash of these, there is no disagreement on the reality that considerable number of people ar affected by Autism in this nation. (Steuernagel, 2005) As of now, cure of Autism is nowhere in sight. Treatment or interventions are formulated to cure particular symptoms in either psyche.The give-and-take procedures that are best studied comprise educational, behavioural and bio medical examination exam interventions. Even though these interventions do not have any cure for autism, they sometimes cause con siderable kick upstairsment. A attractor of approaches emphasize on extremely planned and frequently intensive skill orientated training which is customized to the child on a case to case basis. (Autism Interventions) given(p) the right intervention, a child will be able to humble a broad physique of developmental difficulties.Rigorous, properly devised, and interventions administered in time hold promise for bettering the prospects and the value of life, in the case of a lot of children who are believed to be in danger for cognitive, hearty, or emotional damage. (Zager, 2005) In certain instances, useful intervention is able to better the plight foregoing believed to be almost beyond treatment, the give care autism. Properly administered programs have possibilities to recreate up the future of a child and the outcome a development disorder gives on the family.The outcome of this can bring a child much liberty, help that child to be taken into the community, and indue an progressively fruitful and satisfying life. Regrettably, a lot of pediatric doctors are ineffectual to detect a developmental disorder, equal autism at an age when it is tall time to get quicker intervention service. From birth till 3 years happen to be a crucial period in the development of a child, hence if detected late has increased chances to put the odds for success in jeopardy. (Zager, 2005)Interventions for autism has progressed much since the disorder was stated by Kanner in the 1940s. Then Autism was believed to be intimately associated with schizophrenia and insufficient parenting was seen as the principal(prenominal) factor responsible for the disorder. Psychoanalysis was frequently chosen as the treatment mode, however large-scale consumption of drugs were found and also electroconvulsive treatments were dictate for application in schizophrenia cases. (Bovk Goode, 2003) A lot of medications have been administered to remedy sick indications and activities havi ng autism.However, comprisely no pharmacological treatments with proven suggestions are operable for autism. Nevertheless, psychotropic drugs have been put one across in autistic persons to cure main symptoms, behavioral dyscontrol, cure of simultaneous psychiatric ailments, and management of related clinical states like raptuss. Drugs treating depression, especially serotonin -reuptake inhibitors SRIs, and anticonvulsant drugs constitute the drugs generally applied for autism spectrum behaviors. (Hollander, 2003)The SRIs administered cover fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, venlafaxine, sertraine, and clomipramine. Several of these formulations have been look fored in an open-label as also double-blind manner. The consequences of these researches on the whole point out that these drugs works while treating some of the indications of individuals having autism spectrum disorders. Anticonvulsants like valproic acid and carbamazepine are applied especially in people having com orbid seizure disorder, as also those suffering from impulsive violence and emotional imbalance.But, there has not been any placebo-controlled trials reported till today which assess the metier of these drugs. Besides, the uncharacteristic antipsychotics have been found to be extremely effective adjunctive cure for autistics people, particularly at the time of treating acute indications like bodily violence and self-injury. Medical treatment, nevertheless, is at times intricate by their faculty to progeny in pose on weight and several new(prenominal) undesirable causes. (Hollander, 2003)Biomedical intervention for treating autism cases comprise of a broad variety of therapeutic systems for the treatment and according to some suggest curing autism among children, adolescents and mayhap adults. The source for this type of intervention is a carefully chosen aliment habit which earmarks for regular absorption of nutrients however several associated treatment procedures are also widespread. Biomedical interventions normally begin with a limiting feed like the diet free from gluten and casein. (Biomedical intervention for autism)Normally, foods will be controlled in a specific order, for instance by not giving daybook products-for both in lactoseare regarded to cause problems Glutten consisting of grains like oats, barley, rye, spelt, wheat, and so on Eggs, crazy as well as berries which frequently induce allergic set up among children Fruits and vegetables that have salicylates, phenols and other stuffs which might trigger a reaction every food having artificial colors like the Feingold Diet, and all bi- and poly-saccharides, like lactose, fructose, stiffen and the like.Parents state mixed success with these diet, and mishmash of them. Several among them have witnessed list cure just by avoiding milk, while others are required to do away with salicylates or phenols to attain a tilting academic degree others have seen a practicable, effectual food p attern in the particular Carbohydrate diet. umpteen however report that no advantages are derived from controlled diet.As the gastrointestinal system is considered to be damaged in autistic children, a lot of parents and medical professionals consider it useful to feed nutritionary supplements to their children. (Biomedical intervention for autism) The variety of supplements provided to autistic children undertaking biomedical intervention is broad, however can be classified advertisement as1. Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamins specifically B-complex, and others in RDA doses. 2. Minerals, especially Calcium, Zinc, Magnesium, and other trace minerals like Molybdenum and so on. 3. Essential Fatty acids available in supplements like Borage Oil, Fish Liver Oil and Flax seed oil. 4. Probiotics disagreement exists regarding the advantages and the practical damages of some bacteria strains vs others, however majority have the similar opinion that acidophilus is needed. 5 Anti-yeast suppl ements- mixed success has been stated by parents with antimycotic agent medications, however are more excited regarding the natural cures found in Caprylic acid, Garlic, seed extract of grapes and products like Biocidin.It is observed that majority of the children appear to hold from a carefully chosen diet and judicious use of nutritional supplements, increased differences is found in other alleged alternative medical systems. The most usual of these are Craniosacral therapy/Osteopathy, Homoeopathy, applied kinesology and Chelation. (Biomedical intervention for autism) Results of intense research findings opine that autistic children need personalized, individual commandment to deal with the acuteness of their interaction, social behavioral and impairment related to learning.In situations where autistic children are given thorough early intervention which is particularly intended to receive the spectrum of their requirements, the pace of the growth of children can be improved and might result in enhanced lasting diagnosis. Suitable interventions meant for children having autism must be initiated as soon as possible to benefit from the window of opportunity which is present at the time when the brain of the child is in the growth stage and is flexible. Stephens, 2002) In case of children who are less than 3 years of age, capable interventions normally happen at home or a child care centre. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)) The best researched intervention for this disorder at the minute is behavioral treatment. With the passage of time, autism has been acknowledged as an ailment of development, interventions have heavy on improving development expertise and on means to alleviate behavioral problems. (Bovk Goode, 2003)Autistic children have been observed to be receptive to a broad range of interventions intended at improving their social assignation with others, adults as well as peers. berried policies applying peer-me diated approaches and mentoring by peers have meshed characteristically developing peers. Besides, a lot of researches have proven that social involvement has a direct bearing on other springy behaviors such as language, even when these behaviors are not particularly go to by the teaching program.Therefore, while a realm of intense participation, social behavior is also receptive to intervention. (Rogers, 2001) Acknowledgement of the contribution that language problems specifically is responsible for behavior problem, had given rise to a pointing on the teaching of increased efficient communication skills. (Bovk Goode, 2003) According to the Mental Health A Report of the Surgeon General thirty years of research proved the effectiveness of applied behavioral procedures in lowering suitable behavior and in enhancing communication, learning, and proper social behavior.The fundamental research performed by Ivar Lovaas and his associates at the University of California, Los Angeles, d emanding for a thorough individual child-teacher communications lasting for 40 hours every week, built the base for other educators and researchers in the quest for more efficient initial interventions to assist those having ASD reach their capabilities. The objective of behavioral management is to gird wanted behaviors and eliminate the unwanted behaviors. (Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders))Over 550 peer-referred data-based assessments have been released by the research professionals on behavioral treatment, and these assessments have demonstrated that the treatment gives a broad array of advantages. For instance, it assists a majority of the individuals with autism to interact with others, abide occupied in play and recreational pursuits with peers and caregivers, undertake self-care involvements like toileting and draining dresses, achieve scholarly and vocational proficiencies, and handle unruly conducts like irritability or characteristic behavio rs.Taken from a behavioral standpoint, people with autism are laid with genetic injuries which lower their potential and determination to educate themselves in manners that normally developing children and adults do. Specifically, people with autism develop meager address or discriminatingness to enjoy playing in a germinal manner, interacting, idolizing the activities of other people, discovering their environments, paying attention to the directives of their teachers, or engaging themselves in cultivation books on subjects that are new to them. (Hollander, 2003)Because of this, the most fundamental objective of behavioral treatment is giving learning circumstances which help people with autism to be a winner which will encourage them to keep on learning. Since a lot of interventions developed for persons having autism have found not to be so fruitful or even detrimental, behavioral practitioners consider that it is important to apply interventions whose advantages have been rec orded in controlled researches and that are obtained from better principles from a scientific perspective regarding the manner on how to encourage learning.Besides, they regard that the impact of these interventions are required to be evaluated cautiously in case of every individual having autism who gets them. Behavioral evaluation and cure are normally executed by paraprofessionals who perform under the watchful guidance of professional behavior analysts. (Hollander, 2003) kind based school, home and community requirements order a personalized and varied evaluation procedure so as to guarantee treatment planning. Fruitful and useful evaluation work need effort and involvement by professionals as well as family members.Improved evaluation procedures, inclusive of more increased application of filtering apparatus, broader accessibility of work, and increasingly informed service providers, individuals who in truth have idea regarding autism and assisting families with autism, ever ybody have a share in putting up an encouraging account. School programs are more and more cover while being receptive to autism, in that extending much needed services in less restraining settings. Inclusion practices, together with improved transition facilities, permit people having autism to attain at stages which have not been believed to happen until lately.Parents are inclined to be vehemently occupied in assisting their child and keen to learn the manner in which to impart competence and organize settings. (Zager, 2005) In order to appreciate the childs privileges in the public schools of America, it helps to begin with one of the sanctioned regulations ruling the education of children with deficiencies the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act P. L. 101-476. IDEA has been enacted as a federal law which assures without any cost and suitable public education meant for each child having deficiencies.This implies that in case one admits his child in a public school, hi s/her education will be free and must be suitable for his/her age, potential and level of development. IDEA is an improved reading of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act P. L. 94-142 enacted in 1975. During 1997, IDEA was once more sanctioned authority P. L. 105-17, went ahead in defining rights of children to educational services and stressing the contribution of parents in the educational planning methods for their children. (IDEA and your childs rights)To conclude, a distinct appreciation of intervention effects might presently be impeded by the absence of accuracy in the calibration of results. In order to enhance the accuracy and sensitivity of evaluation of results, it might be helpful to faith research on the type of social commotion of autism with study on intervention. An efficient treatment program will develop in the interests of the child, present an expected schedule, impart responsibilities as a sequence of easy steps, keenly involve the childs interest in extremely systemized activities, and give usual strengthen of behavior.

Essay on Compulsory Primary Education Essay

In a country everybody should know how to read and pull through and how to count, so that everybody can help the nightspot with a better capacity. primordial instruction is based mainly on reading, writing and arithmetic. This is the minimum fosterage that one should get, specially in a poor country akin India, where nothing more can be possibly done owe to paucity of funds. AdvantagesThe present age is the age of plurality. In most of the countries in that respect are democratic form of Government. Democracy cannot be successful if the peck are illiterate. Because illiterate persons cannot read the newspapers. They cannot read the political pamplets. So, they remain in dark about their countrys affairs. mountain should have a least the primary education for their easy conduct in the society and for the success of democracy. Why it should be made compulsoryThe poor people do not send their children to school for want of money. Some children engage elsewhere to supplement t heir family-in accompany. The farmers children help their parents in the field. So, they cannot come to school if it is not made compulsory. but it must be forego education and children should get their books and slates from the Government. Most of the parents being poor, their children should be provided with apologize fooding and free clothing. ConclusionIt is the duty of every Government to make the primary education free and compulsory. The Government of India should excogitate out this scheme with all sincerity, so that all the children of the entire country will come within the scheme. People should co-operate with the Government in this campaign. Students can help their local people to work out the primary education programme. During their holidays and vacations they should open camp-schools in their own localities and discover the local children in suitable hours.

Paraphrase Sample

Unit II Assessment Question 2 Ramesh Punna Columbia Southern University Original Passage Large-Scale Complex IT Systems (Ian Sommerville, Dave Cliff, Radu Calinescu,Justin Keen, Tim Kelly , Marta Kwiatkowska,John McDermid, and Richard Paige) complexness stems from the number and type of relationships between the trunks components and between the musical arrangement and its environment. If a relatively small number of relationships exist between system components and they change relatively slowly over time, then engineers can fracture deterministic models of the system and stag predictions concerning its properties.However, when the elements in a system learn m all combat-ready relationships, complexity is inevitable. Complex systems are nondeterministic, and system characteristics cannot be predicted by analyzing the systems constituents. Such characteristics emerge when the whole system is put to map and changes over time, depending how it is used and on the state of its exte rnal environment. Dynamic relationships accept those between system elements and the systems environment that change.For example, a assertion relationship is a energetic relationship initially, component A energy not trust component B, so, following well-nigh interchange, A checks that B has performed as expected. Over time, these checks may be reduced in image as As trust in B increases. However, some failure in B may profoundly influence that trust, and, later on the failure, redden more stringent checks might be introduced. Complexity stemming from the dynamic relationships between elements in a system depends on the existence and reputation of these relationships.Engineers cannot analyze this inherent complexity during system development, as it depends on the systems dynamic operating environment. Coalitions of systems in which elements are large software systems are ever inherently complex. The relationships between the elements of the coalition change because they a re not nonparasitic of how the systems are used or of the nature of their operating environments. Consequently, the nonfunctional (often even the functional) behavior of coalitions of systems is emergent and impossible to predict completely.Paraphrase for above passage Minimizing the relationships among the entities in large scale system reduces the complexity. Complex systems are not real scalable and would be huge effort when we need to do any changes over time. Relationships should be changing depending on their performances over the life calendar method of birth control of application to be more robust and granular. Dependency between the software systems must be identified in design phase to make a large scale system and failure to do this surgical process would result in unstable and fragile software system.

Planarian Behavior Essay

Planaria belong to the classify Turbella of the phylum platyhelminthes. This paper depicts the behavioral reception of Planarians to a variety of settings and compounds to better disposition this particular Platyhelminthes. With a plastic syringe, it is possible to extract a exemplar of planarian, place into a Petri mete out with enough freshwater and restrain below a laboratory provided microscope. While on the microscope plat course of action, expose your sample to pass and phantom to plug-in the patterns of locomotion and front finis throughout the conditioning tray. try out the individuals with an object to spot some(prenominal) character reference of distinct change in response, negative or positive. Tap the side and milieu of the dish to nonice if there is either different ad bonniement in movement. Add pop come to to surrounding, noting any alter. Obtain a second sample, labeled separately, and use angiotensin-converting enzyme dish to apply Hydrochlor ic Acid and the early(a) to salt (NaCl) water. Note only(prenominal) using minimal amount or as needed. Using the son of a bitchs provided, supply an individual in half to discover if the subject dies or survives.In conclusion, the Planarian makes it choice by moving towards the darkened beas, party favourably. When utilise to shed return on, the individuals fled towards the edge. either sudden object, pass away(p), or altering didnt excise the objects intentions. by and by louver drops of 6 mol HCl (aq), the sample died of very quickly so far, five drops of 6 mol NaCl (aq) did not kill off faithful as quick. It was employ directly to the conditioning trays. Introduction Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes prolong a worm- comparable shape. The Platyhelminth has a bilateral symmetry and meets any provided situation in an aggressive, frontal approach.Cephalization, a specialism of the anterior dismiss of the animal, can be visualized in the gathering of sensory arrangement and cluster of heart and souls, alike cognize as the ganglia or its brain, in the head region. Many of the behaviors you forget chance on are associated to increases in mobility, higher(prenominal) activity, and general increase in responsiveness (Collins, Harker 1999). Most planarias are free-living and common in freshwater environments, also found in marine and terrestrial places. Two ventral nerve cords run the aloofness of the body. Located in the anterior end are two eyespots which possess photoreceptors to detect any form of slatternly.Norm completelyy, a planarian contains a gastrovascular cavity that provides space for digestion tracts and the circulation of nutrient throughout the body. The rim is located on the ventral end, which is the site for both food digestion and/or the release of bodily wastes. Planarians are satisfactory to regenerate from essentially any type of injury and present a novel sy stubble for the ask of wound responses in regenera tion initiation. Planarian regeneration requires adult stem cells called neoblasts and amputation triggers two peaks in neoblast mitoses early in regeneration (Wenemoser, Reddien 2010).Planarians are extremely recognizable due to their ability to regenerate from the smallest body part. Typically transfer in color from grey, brown or black. They seemingly move closely on the bottom of rocks or submerged vegetation. Many are negatively phototactic, which plainly means they shy a modality from any form of light fixture. Each worm has both male and female reproducing organs however, they are monoecious in that they are not self-fertilizing. The most common form is asexual. They appear for function mainly as osto a greater extentgulation, the control of the levels of water and mineral salts in the blood.Planarians must constantly eliminate excess water and are carnivores that feed primarily on protozoans and other small animals. What is a Planarians reaction to a light fixture or su bject directly? Does it move them in any way? What is the difference in responses from light and darkness? By inserting objects to the planarians path, does it alter their behavior? What about exposing them to sound or movement? Does making the water more(prenominal) sharpic or basic affect the health and/or behavioral responses? Which is more likely to kill or harm the sample individuals?What are some distinct or unmatched characteristics definite in the planarian body structure that can be easily observed from a laboratory microscope? Do the individual samples favor any tests performed over the opposite stimulus? What could cause the planarians to move the way they are observed? I see that given the ecological surroundings the planarian can be discovered, I imagine that the exposure of light leave al champion overwhelm the samples tolerance since they become adapt to living underneath rocks, plants, and other submerged vegetation in marine and freshwater environments.Insert ing objects would just be like adding an obstacle course, so Im predicting they would pass and meander around the objects. Acid always seems to be, in most cases, more harmful than any bases or salt compounds, for this test I will be assuming the 6 mol HCl will dramatically harm, if not kill, any planarian currently living about the conditioning tray. After the 6 mol NaCl is added to the Petri dish, Im sure it will have an effect on them to an extent, seeing that some Planaria are unresolved of living in marine waters.Due to the fact that every rig of evidence available via text or online source, many testimonies have been provided that planarian individuals favor shaded as opposed to exposed field of battles of sun light or artificial light sources. Right away it will be easily distinguishable as to which technique will provide the most responsiveness to behavior. I dont feel that creating any type of sound or movement that could be applied directly to the sample will alter or change the reaction of the planarians provided, since they are encompassed inside containers near such activities no matter what or where they are designated to be.I feel the most advantageous examinations will be the light versus dark and adding chemic compound to the already steady pH water provided. Materials and Methods Materials that were include in this lab include at least nine individual planarians, iodine metric ruler, two probing tools, one laboratory scanning microscope, deuce-ace Petri dishes and lids or watch glasses, a vile of 6 mol HCl, a vile of 6 mol NaCl, a plastic pipette, one publish and/or permanent marker, and one lab checkbook. Other things that could be apply include a thermometer and a magnifying glass.With a dropper, we transferred planarian from the culture dish to a Petri dish and were sure to add enough water so that animal could glide freely over a small area of the dish. Next, we drew and labeled the ventral nerve cords, pharynx, eyespots, gang lia and gastrovascular cavity (see Figure 1 to identify these particular structures). To perform this experiment, we place a petry glass on the stage of the microscope to view through the scanning lens. First, measurements were taken to note the length of the various planaria.By turning the light fixture on and off, we save any and all movement. Then with the leash planaria, we utilise the probing tools to geld the planaria in half and used three of the halves that were left to observe any form of regeneration in the water provided. The other three were set(p) to regenerate in a separate petry dish to check up on they did not mix together. Of the remaining six planaria, we placed three in separate petry glasses. One of the glasses was used to add five drops of 6 mol HCl and the remaining petry glass was used to add five drops of 6 mol NaCl.After applying the chemicals to the water, one at a time in order for accurate and precise recording, we noted any changes in mobility, rea ctions, color, and/or functions. Added obstacles to the paths of some of the planarian and slowly tilted the glass back and onward to create water flow and movement. This was to ensure we created or reenacted any type of ecosystem the planaria may exist in to allow for maximum behavioral responses to different scenarios. This allowed for the most of the laboratory experiment and the more tests performed provide more precise results.Results After placing three planarians into a single petry dish, I placed the watch glass onto the stage of the microscope to prototypal indentify body structures, organs, and gain noesis into the normal behavior of a single planaria. Using the metric ruler, I was able to establish the average length of the planaria to be 10 mm in length. As the light fixture remained off, I took get wind that all of the planarians in the glass performed and acted in similar ways. They were free-moving, covering all surface provided within the water.After turning the lighting fixture on, for each one planarian scurried towards the waters edge only to be detain within the area provided. It appeared to me as if they were trying to evade the light in search of a more crusadeable and sustainable environment. Next, I used the probing tool to create an obstacle to see if they reacted any different to a new placement. Unfortunately, that was not the case they simply went around or avoided it all together. As I came towards the adding chemicals section of the experiment, I used the tool to cut the planarian in half, to prove the theory of regeneration.The anterior end went about as if it was barely affect however, the posterior end was quite the opposite, yet it still possessed signs of life and locomotion to an extent. Then I went ahead and used the remaining six planarian to test for any type of ability to survival when introduced to hydrochloric blistering and salt water. After separating the samples into plane numbered dishes, I first applied five drops of six molar HCl to the first sample. This most simultaneously killed all of the living organisms within the dish.Next, I placed the same amount of six molar NaCl to the last dish however this reaction was much different. After directly applying the salt water, the planaria seemed to turn out abnormal, increasing they movement and seelihood. I was surprised that it didnt kill them off as the hydrochloric acid did. It was almost as if they began to adapt or leave the new conditions. My only thought was that since a small percentage conk out in marine ecosystems, they are able to live in such conditions to an extent or within a certain limit.To my surprise they managed to live throughout the entire procedure. See Table 1 and 2 Discussions Exposing the planaria to light went as anticipated. Before the lab even out began, it was very apparent(a) that these organisms were more prone to darkness hence the reason for watching them on the underside of submerged items. Mo st planarians are also light-sensitive and in some, pigmented light-sensitive cells are clumped in two cups that serve as antediluvian eyes ( Kobayashi 2008).The one thing that caught my eye was how quick they were to avoid and almost escape the direct light, was as if they were in grave danger. I was sort of intrigued to discover that although these animals are able to regenerate, I still was having a lumbering time believing they would still live for reasons of doubt but after(prenominal) separating the body parts into halves, it reminded me much of an earth worm. When you go to capture an nightwalker from the ground, and you accidentally break them or rip them into halves, each halve squirms away as almost if unharmed or phased.The placing of obstacles came to no surprise. Just as for any living organism, if it comes across an object in its path, the organism finds other means of getting around or avoiding all together. If it didnt suit the planarian, it moved on. When addin g the hydrochloric acid, I could only think one thing. If acid was applied to our skin or in great quantities in our ecosystem, we are exposed to a very harmful substance and more often measure than not cannot tolerate a highly exposure rate.As I began to reach the final drop of acid into the dish, the organisms inside already began to show signs of death or nearing the end of life all together. The sodium chloride, however, was a different story. I didnt really know what to expect. It could have went one of two ways, either erratically change the behavior and response to such chemicals or merely phase them at all. Much like the HCl, they werent used to such components and surely didnt accept it but even after adding all of the substance, it seemed as if the planaria were able to still find ways to adapt or tolerate expose to it.Unlike the HCl, they were able to survive. Consluion The results did prove my hypothesis correct. The planarians behavior response to light was vastly affe cted to the amount of exposure to direct light. There was an increase in mobility, higher activity, and general increase in responsiveness when any form of light was applied to the sample. Adding obstacles didnt take much affect on the individuals, it simply just made an inconvenience and planned around it. By introducing hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride, it created a whole new means of survival of the fittest.The hydrochloric acid instantly killed off all the planarian exposed to the chemical, much like I predicted. The sodium chloride almost seemed as if it left the sample unharmed. In conclusion, there are several things I would also have included to this experiment for more discoveries. Things such as increase or falling off in water temperature, measuring the temperature at given times to note any changes in response to the change. Also, maybe adding other types of aqueous solutions to the mix, or perhaps compound that would change the performance of the viewed planarian, such as caffeine.

My Learning Style

This cla do was downloaded by 74. 60. 153. 191 On 14 March 2013, At 1904 publishing comp whatever(prenominal) R by takege In radiation diagrama Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number 1072954 Registered office Mor cartridge clipr House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK educational psychology An global ledger of Experi kind educational Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription culture http//www. tandfon margin. com/loi/cedp20 tuition appearances An everyplaceview of theories, regularityls, and measures Simon Cassidy a a University of Salford, UK Version of record first create 05 Oct 2010.To cite this article Simon Cassidy (2004) skill elbow rooms An overview of theories, personates, and measures, educational Psychology An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 244, 419-444 To link to this article http//dx. doi. org/10. 1080/0144341042000228834 PLEASE axial rotation DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full ground and conditions of use http//www. tandfon controversy. com/page/ basis-andconditions This article whitethorn be utilize for interrogation, t several(prenominal)lying, and private instruct purposes. Any cheering or systematic reproduction, redistri just nowion, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, ystematic supply, or distri besidesion in both(prenominal) form to any integrity is communicately forbidden. The eviscerate-up does not give any warranty express or implied or gain ground any re payation that the contents impart be complete or accurate or up to date. The truth of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with old sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever ca utilize arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this clobber.Educational Psychology Vol. 24, No. 4, alarming 2004 Educational P sychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com eruditeness trends An overview of theories, gains, and measures Simon Cassidy* University of Salford, UK Although its origins feature been traced back practically further, search in the bea of acquire bolt has been brisk for? at a conservative estimate? around iv decades. During that period the fervor of natural put to reverse has varied, with novel years seeing a particularly tag upturn in the amount of lookers working in the ara.Also of note is the grade of disciplines from which the research is emerging. Increasingly, research in the world of schooling direction is be conducted in domains outside psychology? the discipline from which many of the central concepts and theories originate. These domains include checkup and health cargon cooking, management, industry, vocational training and a vast electron orbit of settings and take aims in the historic period of education. It is of circ umstantial wonder that uses of these concepts are so unsubtle ranging given up the centrality of t happen uponlying? and how best to do it? to al roughly every nerve of life.As a consequence of the quantity of research, the diversity of the disciplines and domains in which the research is conducted, and the varied aims of the research, the topic has become fragmented and disparate. This is al nearly conditi adeptd emotional responsetainly how it must face to practitioners and researchers brand-new to the champaign, with its complexities and convolutions difcult to comprehend and assimilate. As much(prenominal)(prenominal), it is perhaps timely to face up an account of the central themes and yields surrounding nurture demeanor and to contain the actors purchasable for the bar of flare.This paper aims to provide such an account, attempting to clarify common areas of ambiguity and in particular issues surrounding measurement and appropriate instruments. It aims to bring unneurotic necessary components of the area in such a way as to allow for a broader appreciation of entropy look and to inform regarding executable beam of lights for measurement. It is anticipated that such an account will provoke research in the eld by presenting it as more accessible and by exploitation a greater appreciation for the area across disciplines and in researchers and practitioners new to the area.Introduction For some time now educational research exploring the issue of faculty member proceeding or success has extended? rightfully so? beyond simple issues of intelligence and prior academic securement. There are a be of describeing-related concepts, such as perception of academic control and achievement motivation which have been a focus of attention when attempting to direct factors poignant acquisition-related *Directorate of Psychology, University of Salford, Allerton Building, Frederick Road, Salford M6 6PU, UK. Email s. emailprotected c. uk ISSN 01443410(print)/ISSN 1469046X (online)/04/030419-26 a 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com 420 S. Cassidy achievement (Cassidy & Eachus, 2000). One concept in particular which has provided some valuable insights into acquirement in both academic and other settings is skill mood. There is common acceptance that the musical modality in which singulars choose to or are abandoned to preliminary a acquisition posture has an involve on military operation and achievement of encyclopedism outcomes.Whilst? and perhaps because? training way has been the focus of such a vast enumerate of research and practitioner- base studies in the area, in that location embody a classification of denitions, theoretical positions, cases, interpretations and measures of the work. To some extent, this preempt be considered a natural consequence of encompassing empirical investigation and is to be pass judgment with any continually developing concept which proves useful in gaining apprehensiveness of such a crucial and prevailing endeavour as acquisition.However, the direct of ambiguity and debate is such that even the trade union movement of selecting an appropriate instrument for investigation is an onerous one, with the unifying of subsequent ndings within an existing cloth problematic, at best. This paper does not seek to achieve an absolute melt and converge upon the i bundle molding and measure of fixing flair, but quite to inform finished description and comparison.It is intended as a imaginativeness for researchers and professionals who desire a broad appreciation of the area of learn manner and who whitethorn, previously, have been working with an in-depth understanding but, perhaps, except a narrow awareness of the eld. horseback riding and Cheema (1991) have previously noted that researchers in the eld of cognitive drift/ tuition hyphen often present however a very limited (if any) account of the variety of theories and instruments which exist for the measurement of path.Whilst educators in all elds are becoming increasingly aware of the captious grandness of understanding how undivideds learn, it is equally important that any attempts to integrate discipline carriage into educational programmes are do from an informed position. John Yerxa, Education Ofcer with the Department of General Practice and the Adelaide to Outback GP Training professional persongramme, comments manifestly be aware that there can be unalike ship canal to access t for each oneing and nurture can make a divergency (Yerxa, 2003).Whilst there may be some truth in such comments, they are not helpful in a drive towards research- and practitioner- base activity which exhibits good awareness of erudition look guess and empirical present. This paper aims to provide an accessible overview of theories, instruments and empirical work in the eld of acquir e vogue. Key Terminology ? And some vestigial issues Dening the key name in this area is not a straightforward parturiency. The terms learning ardour, cognitive fashion and learning strategy are? understandably? a great deal utilise imprecisely in theoretical and empirical accounts of the topic.The terms learning style and cognitive style are, on some occasions, employ inter miscellanyably, whilst at other times they are afforded separate and distinct denitions. cognitive style is attaind by Allport (1937) as an individualistics typical or habitual mode of problem solving, mentation, perceiving and remembering, eyepatch the term learning style is adopted to re? ect a concern with the use of cognitive style in a learning Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com breeding airs 421 stake (Riding & Cheema, 1991).Riding and Cheema (1991) go on to describe cognitive style in terms of a bipolar symmetry (wholist uninflected) while lear ning style is seen as encompassing a bite of components which are not mutually exclusive. It is as considerably likely that cognitive style? at the very least? can be regarded as one signi dissimulation component of learning style. Hartley (1998) provides the avocation denitions cognitive styles are the slipway in which different individuals distinctiveally shape up different cognitive tasks learning styles are the ways in which individuals characteristically approach different learning tasks.A third key term in the area, learning strategies, Hartley (1998) denes as the strategies students adopt when studying. Hartley (1998, p. 149) continues different strategies can be selected by learners to deal with different tasks. learning styles might be more machine rifle than learning strategies which are optional. This nal summit, which attempts to distinguish amongst style and strategy, re? ects a recurring issue in the area. The state-or-trait debate associated with so many valet de chambre psycho ratiocinative characteristics (such as personality) is, not surprisingly, relevant here.Learning style may be considered as change little over time (structural)? a trait? or as changing with each experience or situation (process)? a state. Perhaps the more workable view is that a style may well exist is some form, that is it may have organise, but that the bodily structure is, to some degree, responsive to experiences and the demands of the situation (process) to allow change and to enable accommodative demeanour. The motherboard/software and hard/soft wiring analogies have also been used to describe the interface of style (motherboard/hard wiring) and strategy (software/soft wiring).Investigating the issue of stability in learning style Loo (1997) did nd evidence to support consistency in learning style over time, but was captious of current techniques of analysis and recommended caution in drawing any rm conclusion regarding stability. One nal term wo rthy of denition here is gustatory perceptions. A subroutine of authors refer to the favouring of one method of teaching over another (such as group work over independent-study) as learning choices. The major gustatory perceptions are fairly well integrated within a itemize of the models discussed and are often dealt with explicitly by the more work up models of learning style.Characterising Learning hyphen Simplifying issuings The preferred way in which an individual approaches a task or learning situation? their learning/cognitive style or approach or strategy? has been characterised in several different ways based on a variety of theoretical models. Before analyzeing these models and characterisations, it may be helpful rst to consider existing attempts at simplifying and categorising current systems along key props (see circuit board 1). lops Onion manikin utilize the way in which learning/cognitive style is measured to propose a point-like model of learning behav iour, enclothe (1983, 1987) utilises an onion metaphor to beautify inner and outer layers of the construct. Initially proposing threesome layers, Curry Witkin (1962) Field-dependence/independence Kagan (1965) Impulsivityre? exivity Holzman and Klein (1954) Levellersharpener Pask (1972) Holistserialist Pavio (1971) Verbaliservisualiser Gregorc (1982) expression delineator Kauffmann (1979) learner explorer Kirton (1994) AdaptioninnovationAllinson and Hayes (1996) Intuitionanalysis Kolb (1984) ELM lovemaking and Mumford (1992) LSQ Vermunt (1994) LSI Entwistle & Tait (1995) come stocky Biggs et al. (2001) SPQ Schmeck et al. (1991) ILP hound, Butler, Noy, and Rosser (1978) Conceptual level Dunn, Dunn, and Price (1989) LSI Reichmann and Grasha (1974) Styles of learning moveion model Ramirez and Castenada (1974) minor rating form Reinert (1976) ELSIE Hill (1976) cognitive Style relate line Letteri (1980) Learner founts Keefe and Monks (1986) Learning style prole get d d Socia l interaction d d d Instructional druthers d d d d d d d d d In ar sendion bear upon Curry (1987) d d d d d d d d Riding and Cheema (1991) Wholist analytic disposition centred d d d d d d d d d cognitive centred d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d Learning centred Rayner and Riding (1997) d d d d d d d d d d cognitive personality Table 1. Taxonomy of learning style models Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com 422 S. Cassidy Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Learning Styles 423 ater includes tender interaction as a fourth layer. Instructional option refers to the individuals preferred choice of learning environment. It is set forth as the outermost layer, the most observable layer and the layer most susceptible to in? uence, fashioning it the least stable level of measurement. Instruments cited as measuring instructional preference include the Learning gustation stock certificate (Rezler & Rezmovic, 1981). Social interaction provides the beside layer and relates to the individuals preference for social interaction during learning.Reichmann and Grashas (1974) Student Learning Style Scale denes learners gibe to their type and level of interaction (independent/dependent, collaborative/competitive, and role player/avoidant). The third and more stable layer is development impact style and is described as the individuals intellectual approach to the processing of breeding. Instruments associated with the measurement of this layer are Kolbs Learning Style stock list (Kolb, 1976), Cognitive Preference Inventory (Tamir & Cohen, 1980) and Inventory of Learning Processes (Schmeck, Ribich, & Ramaniah, 1977).The nal layer described is cognitive personality style. This appears the most robust component, described as a comparatively eternal personality proportionality ? apparent only when an individuals behaviour is observed across many different learning situations (Ridin g & Cheema, 1991, p. 195). Associated instruments for measurement are the Embedded Figures running game (Witkin, 1962), Myers Briggs symbol Indicator, (Myers, 1962) and Matching Familiar Figures Test (Kagan, 1965). Riding and Cheemas Fundamental DimensionsHaving identied in excess of 30 labels used to describe a variety of cognitive and learning styles, Riding and Cheema (1991) propose a broad assortment of style according to twain fundamental ratios representing the way in which development is processed and represented wholistanalytic and communicativeiserimager. The wholistanalytic belongings represents the manner in which individuals tend to process information, each as a complete (wholist) or broken down into components parts (analytic). Quoting Nickerson, Perkin, and Smith (1985), Riding and Cheema describe the wholistanalytic dimension exploitation commonly associated terms analytic? eductive, rigorous, constrained, oblique, formal, critical and synthetic wholist? inductive, expansive, unconstrained, divergent, informal, diffuse and seminal. The speakerimager dimension describes the degree to which individuals tend to represent information as words ( vocalizer) or as images (imager). They suggest a number of models of cognitive style which can be subsumed under these dimensions (or families). Table 1 includes examples of these family groupings along with the categorical frameworks proposed by Curry (1987) and Rayner and Riding (1997).Riding and Cheema (1991) make the point that many of those styles identied do not feature firmly in empirical work and that attention has focused on only a small number of styles. They conclude that whilst there is relatively little research comparing the various styles, they can at least be placed into the deuce broad categories of wholistanalytic and verbalimagery. The ii fundamental cognitive styles exist 424 S. Cassidy independently and are not detail upon one another an Imager may be positioned at all end of the wholistanalytic dimension.Riding (1991) has authentic the Cognitive Styles compendium (CSA) as an estimate tool desegregation the two dimensions. Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Cognitive-Centred, Activity(Learning)-Centred and record-Centred show upes development Grigerenko and Sternbergs (1995) handling of style-based theory and research, Rayner and Riding (1997) consider learning style within the framework of personality-centred, cognitive-centred and learning-centred approaches.There is only limited discussion of personality-centred approaches given, according to Rayner and Riding, its limited in? uence in the area and the human race of only a mavin model (Myers Briggs style model) which explicitly incorpo evaluate personality as a major factor. Cognitive-centred approaches focus on the identication of styles based on individual difference in cognitive and perceptual carrying out. The discussion of cognitive-c entred approaches attempts to integrate the earlier work of Riding and Cheema (1991), categorising models according to holistanalytic and verbalimager principles. The discussion revisits models considered earlier by Riding and Cheema and extends to include a number of additional models including Ridings (1991) Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA). The CSA is a computerised treasurement tool which identies an individuals position along both the wholistanalytic dimension and the verbaliserimager dimension. The CSA is an example of a model and instrument of learning style which incorporates the two proposed fundamental dimensions of style.Learning-centred approaches are distinguished on the basis that there is a greater interest in the impact of style on learning in an educational setting, and the development of new learning-relevant constructs and concepts, often born out of the utilisation of judgment instruments. Rayner and Ridings subsequent discussion of learning-centred approaches is framed around the musical note amidst process-based models, preference-based models and cognitive skills-based models.Process models are dened in terms of perceiving and information processing, with Kolbs existential Learning cast representing one such approach. Preference models focus on individuals preferences for the learning situation and include preferred time of day for study, temperature, light, preference for group/independent study. Cognitive skills-based approaches are characterised by the desire to defend cognitivecentred models of style to a learning situation. These approaches focus on elddependency, perceptual modality and memory. Further reviews are provided by De Bello (1990) and Swanson (1995).De Bello provides a systematic review of 11 of what he considers major models, selected according to the following criteria represent a diachronic stance have in? uenced others re? ect individual practitioners attempts to place style relate to concurrent issues in educ ation are research oriented or are widely known in the eld. De Bello presents a comprehensive account of those models reviewed with an evaluative component, making this a useful repoint for the selection of appropriate models for work in the area. Swansons review uses Currys onion model as a framework forEducational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Learning Styles 425 categorising models and measures according to the outlined component layers of learning style. Swansons article also provides a relatively rare review of the effects of culture and ethnicity on learning style. Currys (1987) review is concerned with the psychometric properties of measures of learning style. Her article examines 21 measures of style, focusing on issues of dependableness and validity, issues which continue to be raised as a matter of concern in the area (Rayner & Riding, 1997).Whilst each of these reviews offers a slightly different perspective on the topic, the impetus for each of them is the wish to rationalise an area littered with a confusing array of terms, denitions, models, and measures. Theories, Models, and Measures The following discussion of learning style models and instruments is? as is frequently the case? by no agent everlasting(a). It is, however, fairly comprehensive and includes descriptions of most of the models at least referred to in recent and signicant review papers (De Bello, 1990 Riding & Cheema, 1991 Rayner & Riding, 1997).The selection process for sure did not centre on identifying models which differed from each other in such a way as to provide alternative perspectives. Rather, the aim is to make a point of describe overlaps surrounded by different models in straddle to make explicit the need for rationalisation in research and enforce and encourage readers to identify further similarities. Whilst it would, conceivably, be possible to compile an exhaustive list of instruments, this would probably include many der ivatives and adaptations along with a number of instruments without an empirical base and an absence of dependability and validity data.Witkins Field-Dependence/Field-Independence (WholistAnalytic Style Family/ Cognitive-Centred approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Field-dependence/eld-independence is essentially an individuals ability to disembed in perceptual tasks? likened to spatial intelligence (Widiger, Knudson, & Rorer, 1980)? and is associated with the ability to disembed in non-perceptual problem solving tasks (Riding and Cheema, 1991). march that eld-dependence was also relevant to intellectual ability as ell as a range of other psychological competencies, such as whizz of self, has led to the construct being given the broader label of differentiation. As a style it associated with a general preference for learning in isolation (eld-independence) as opposed to integration (elddependence) (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Field-independent learners are characteris ed as operating with an internecine frame of reference, intrinsically motivated with self-directed goals, structuring their own learning, and dening their own study strategies.Field-dependent learners on the other hand are characterised as relying more on an external frame of reference, are extraneousally motivated, oppose go against to clearly dened procedure goals, have a need for structuring and guidance from the instructor, and a desire to interact with other 426 S. Cassidy learners. These characteristics will clearly have implications for the preferred learning situation and consequently learning outcomes. Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. andfonline. com Measurement. Tests such as the Embedded Figures Test (EFT), involving the disembedding of a shape from its surrounding eld, have been used to measure the construct. Comments. Although it has stimulated a great deal of research in the eld of education in particular, Witkins theory is criticised o n the following movement to generalise instruction execution on perceptual tasks to personality and social behaviour is an over-extension of the theory (Grifths & Sheen, 1992) and that eldindependence? ecause of its high correlations with measures of intelligence (Arthur & Day, 1991)? is a measure of ability as opposed to style and so is of little value in the eld of cognitive style. Kagans Impulsivity-Re? exivity (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred shape up / Cognitive Personality Style) Model and measurement. Impulsivity-re? exivity is measured using the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) which requires familiar line drawing of objects to be matched against several possibilities.Individuals who make quick responses after brie? y scanning the alternatives are designate cognitive spontaneouss while those who scrutinise each alternative before making a nal decision are tagged cognitive re? ectives. Comments. Of note here is the linkup reported amidst eld-dep endence/eldindependence and impulsivity-re? exivity with a number of studies reporting signicant correlations between MFFT and EFT malt whiskys (for example, Massari & Massari, 1973). Re? ctives are reported as more eld-independent and impulsives as more eld-dependent (Messer, 1976), indicating a signicant overlap in the two constructs. Convergent-Divergent Styles (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred set about / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Convergent style is characterised by the generation of the one accepted correct answer from the available information and divergent style as a propensity to produce a number of potentially acceptable solutions to the problem.Measurement. Assessment of convergent thinking is the more straightforward of the two, using standard intelligence tests, multiple-choice items, as well as being inferred from performance on the EFT and MFFT. Because the number of Learning Styles 427 Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded fro m www. tandfonline. com potentially correct answers is used as an index of divergent thinking, tests such as Uses of Objects Test and the Consequences Test are usual methods of assessment.Comments. There are a number of suggested implications here that certain subject areas may encourage, and therefore reward, convergent over divergent thinking (that is, science-related disciplines) that there needs to be a like-for-like match between teacher and student in terms of preferred style (Hudson, 1966) that, because of the inherent structure and routine in most formal educational settings, divergent thinking proves unpopular with teachers and is discouraged (Getzels & Jackson, 1962).There has been an experience drawn between divergent thinking and eld-independence (which is considered to be more creative), given that individuals marking high on divergent thinking also score high on eld independence (Bloomberg, 1971). Holzman and Kleins Leveller-Sharpener Styles (WholistAnalytic Style Fa mily / Cognitive-Centred near / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Using the degree of complexity with which the individual perceives the task, Holzman and Klein (1954) introduced the style dimension levellersharpener.The leveller has a tendency to oversimplify their perceptions of the task, assimilating detail and cut back complexity. In contrast, the sharpener interrupts to assimilate effectively but instead introduces complexity, treating each magic spell of detail or event as novel. Assimilation is therefore the dimension dening this particular cognitive style, with levellers and sharpeners being positioned at the extremes of the continuum. Measurement.The failure to assimilate characteristic is demonstrated by the Schematising Test which requires the individual to judge the coat of a series of squares of light which get progressively bigger. The tendency is to underestimate the size of previous squares judged against the current larger squares. Whilst levellers show a par ticular sensibility to this effect, sharpeners make more accurate estimations as a consequence of helplessness to assimilate current and knightly events (squares of light). Comments.Whilst there is relatively little work utilising the levellersharpener cognitive style (Riding & Cheema, 1991), Riding and Dyer (1983) were able to identify similarities between this style and eld-dependence/independence. Pasks HolistSerialist Style (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred cuddle / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Interestingly, Pask (Pask, 1972 Pask & Scott, 1972) makes the point that Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com 428 S. Cassidy hilst both groups operate through a different process for learning? in the end? both groups achieve a similar level of understanding. Serialists operate a step-bystep approach to learning, choosing to deal only with small amounts of information or material at any one time before going on to link th ese steps and achieve understanding. Holists on the other hand will utilise signicant amounts of information from the start, looking to achieve understanding by identifying and focusing on major patterns or trends in the data.The serialists perceive the learning task in terms of a series of independent discrete topics and issues and focus on developing links between them, but for holists the focus is on the task as a whole. Pask observed the relative characteristics of serialists and holists as serialists? stepby-step, logical unidimensional progression, narrow focus, cautious and critical leading to a tendency to fail to see the task from a global perspective wholists? broad perspective and global strategies resulting in a tendency to make hasty decisions based on insufcient information or analysis. Measurement.Pask and Scott (1972) devised a series of problem-solving tasks which allowed individuals to adopt either a step-by-step or global approach to solving the task. Individual s adopting a step-by-step strategy to test simple hypotheses were labelled as serialists while holists were those individuals who attempted to reach a quicker solution by examination more complex hypotheses. Comments. Riding and Cheema (1991) point out that despite being widely accepted, the dimension is based on only a relatively small render and has not beneted from any empirical work examining its connectedness with other learning styles.Notwithstanding these comments, Pask (1976) did report that holists scored higher on the Analogies Test and variableness Test than serialists, suggesting possible similarities with the convergent-divergent style dimension. Pavios VerbaliserVisualiser Cognitive Style (VerbaliserImager Style Family / Cognitive-Centred Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model and measurement. The assertion that individuals have an habitual propensity to process information either verbally or imaginally emanates from dual coding theory (Pavio, 1971) and may h ave important implications for learning.The verbaliservisualiser cognitive dimension is assessed through tests examining individuals ability to generate information not present but dependent upon the presence of a unwritten image (Riding & Taylor, 1976). Individuals capable of moveing quickly are considered visualisers and those with slower response rates verbalisers. Evidence exists to support the notion that, whilst the ability to switch between modes exists, some individuals rely heavily on one or other mode (Riding & Cheema, 1991).The fact that individuals have preferences for either visual or verbal fantasy has implication for learning. Alesandrini (1981) reported that the tendency for visualisation was inversely related to science and verbal analytical Learning Styles 429 ability, while the generally reported nding is that verbalisers learn best from textbased material and visualisers from pictorially presented material (Riding & Buckle, 1990). This suggests that a mismatch between learner and mode of presentation will adversely affect performance.Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Gregorcs Style Delineator (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Gregorc (1982) describes four distinctive and observable behaviours abstract, concrete, random, and sequential tendencies. A combination of these tendencies is significative of individual style. These tendencies are, Gregorc believes, re? ective of in-born predispositions but individuals need to be capable of functioning outside their natural style.Four learning styles are identied concrete sequential, featuring direct, step-by-step, orderly, sensory-based learning concrete random, featuring trial and error, intuitive and independent approaches to learning abstract sequential, featuring analytic, logical approaches and a preference for verbal instruction and abstract random, featuring a preference for holistic , visual, experiential, and unstructured learning. Measurement. The Style Delineator is a 40-item self-report gunstock involving the rank ordering of sets of words.The format is similar to that of Kolbs (1976) Learning Styles Inventory and it has been suggested that observation and interviews should be used on board the instrument to assist in the identication of learning style and preferences (De Bello, 1990). The measure identies an individuals learning style according to Gregorcs model. Comments. Rayner and Riding (1997) argue that the wholistanalytic dimension of cognitive style is present within Gregorcs model. Kaufmanns AssimilatorExplorer Style (WholistAnalytic Style Family / CognitiveCentred Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model.The assimilatorexplorer cognitive style (Kaufmann, 1979) denes style in terms of an individuals propensity to work up problems through either novel or familiar strategies. The style was genuine around problem-solving behaviour and has a c lose association with the use of creativity. Measurement. A-E style is measured using a 32-item self-report questionnaire highly- certain by Kauffmann and Martinsen (1991) in which individuals are scored according to their level of apparent desire for novelty (denoting explorers) or familiarity (denoting assimilators) in cognitive function. 30 S. Cassidy Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Kirtons AdaptionInnovation Style (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Grounded in an precondition that cognitive style is related to creativity, problem solving and decision-making strategies as well as aspects of personality, Kirton (1994) argued that style develops early in life and remains stable over both time and situation. Kirton introduced an adaptioninnovation dimension along which cognitive style could be measured ith adaptors characterised by the desire to do things better and innovator s by the desire to do things differently. Measurement. A-I is assessed using the Kirton AdaptorInnovator Inventory (KAI), a 32-item self-report instrument developed for use with an adult population with both workplace and life experience. Seen as a measure of problem-solving style and creativity, the KAI is in frequent use in the eld of management and training. Allinson and Hayes IntuitionAnalysis Style (WholistAnalytic Style Family / Cognitive-Centred Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model.The Cognitive Style Index was developed by Allinson and Hayes (1996) in an exploit to operationalise cognitive style for use in the area of management. It focuses on the dimension of recognition versus analysis which, Allinson and Hayes argue, represents a superordinate dimension of cognitive style. Hemispheric asymmetry underlies the dimension, with right brain orientation characterised by intuition with a tendency for rapid decision making based on feeling and the adoption of a global perspective. Left brain orientation is characterised by analysis where decisions are a result of logical cerebrate focusing on detail.Measurement. The CSI is a 38-item self-report questionnaire which provides a score suggestive of either an intuitive or analytic nature. Kolbs Experiential Learning Model (ELM) and Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Learning-Centred Processed- base Approach / Information Processing Style) Model. Kolb (1976, 1984) proposes a four-stage hypothetical learning cycle. Individuals will show a preference for or will mete out with some stages better than others and learning is seen as a continuous, inter dynamic process.The four stages of the ELM are described as concrete experience (CE experiencing) which favours experiential learning abstract abstractisation (AC thinking) where there is a preference for conceptual and analytical thinking in order to achieve understanding active experimentation (AE doing) involving active trial-and-error learning and re? ec tive observation (RO re? ecting) where extensive consideration is given to the task and potential solutions before there is any attempt at action. The four learning orientations form two orthogonal bipolar dimensions of learning. Educational Psychology 2004. 4419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Learning Styles 431 The rst dimension is prehension? the grasping of information from experience? and is constituted by the bipolar orientations CEAC. The second dimension described is transformation? the processing of grasped information? and is constituted by the remaining orientations AERO. Relative positioning along these dimensions denes the learning styles described by Kolb as convergence, divergence, assimilation and accommodation. The individual who adopts a convergent approach uses abstract conceptualisation to drive active experimentation.Action is based on abstract understanding of the task and projected strategies for successful completion of the task. Divergers blend in re? ective observation with concrete experience to devise an often creative solution. Divergers are often described as creative learners because of their propensity to consider multiple potential strategies for learning and problem solving. Assimilators, concerned primarily with the chronicle of their observations, favour abstract conceptualisation and re? ective observation. As such, assimilators seek generally to rene abstract theories rather than develop workable strategies and solutions.Lastly, Kolb denes the accommodator. Using active experimentation and concrete experience, these individuals have a clear preference for hands-on learning. The accommodator has been described as having a tendency for active action and a noted ability for adapting to diverse situations (Lynch, Woel? , Steele, & Hanssen, 1998). Measurement. primitively developed as a 9-item self-report measure (Kolb, 1976), the revised LSI (Kolb, 1985) is a 12-item self-report questionnaire. Respondents are take on each of the items to rank four sentence endings comparable to each of the four learning styles.LSI scores re? ect an individuals relative ferocity on the four learning orientations and enable categorisation according to the alike(p) learning style. Two combination scores measure an individuals preference for abstractness over concreteness (ACCE) and action over re? ection (AERO). Comments. Assertions that the styles outlined by Kolb will be associated with student performance have been borne out in a number of studies where, for example, convergers perform better on conventional examinations involving concrete answers (Lynch et al. , 1998).Despite such support, studies examining the psychometric properties of the LSI have raised concerns regarding its reliability and validity (Freedman & Stumpf, 1981 Geiger, Boyle, & Pinto, 1992 Geller, 1979 Newstead, 1992 Sims, Veres, Watson, & Buckner, 1986). Kolbs emphasis on experiential learning and the developmental nature of learni ng suggests a potential for change in style (Rayner & Riding, 1997). Studies which have examined stability and change using the LSI present a mixed picture. Low test-retest reliability statistics and changes in style classication reported by Sims et al. 1986) are countered by reports of exceptionally high test-retest reliability of 0. 99 found by Veres, Sims, and Locklear (1991). Although also reporting high test-retest reliability 432 S. Cassidy Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com statistics, Loo (1997) is cautious about them, believing that foreign statistical techniques may be masking individual changes in style in favour of group effects. The ELM forms the basis of the work of dulcorate and Mumford (1986) in the eld of learning style and management and the development of their Learning Styles Questionnaire.Honey and Mumfords Learning Styles Questionnaire (Learning-Centred ProcessedBased Approach / Information Processing Style) Model. H oney and Mumfords (1992) description and measurement of learning style is grounded in Kolbs experiential learning model, with styles closely corresponding to those dened by Kolb. The Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) was developed for use with management trainees and has been proposed as an alternative to Kolbs LSI. The four learning styles measured by the LSQ are activist (Kolbs active experimentation) re? ctor (Kolbs re? ective observation) theorist (Kolbs abstract conceptualisation and pragmatist (Kolbs concrete experience). Measurement. The LSQ is an 80-item self-report inventory based on Kolbs ELM but developed specically for use in industry and management. Individuals tendency towards a preferred learning style is indicated by their ratings of behavioural and preference orientations. Comments. Although developed for use with management trainees, the LSQ has been used in a range of settings including education.However, concerns regarding the psychometric qualities of the LSQ have been raised. Duff and Duffy (2002) report a failure to support the existence of either the bipolar dimensions or learning styles proposed by Honey and Mumford and found the LSQ to have only modest levels of inherent consistency (ranging from 0. 52 to 0. 73 for the four style subscales). Given that their sample was 388 undergrad students, Duff and Duffy conclude the LSQ is not an acceptable alternative to the LSI and that its use in the eld of higher education is premature.Vermunts Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Learning-Centred Processed-Based Approach / Information Processing Style) Model. Vermunt (1992) describers the concept of learning style in terms of processing strategies, including an awareness of the aims and objectives of the learning exercise used to determine what is learnt statute strategies, which serve to monitor learning mental models of learning, encompassing the learners perceptions of the learning process and learning orientations, described as personal aims, intentions and expectations based on past experience of learning.Based on these strategies and orientations, Vermunt derives four learning styles undirected, Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Learning Styles 433 where there is difculty in assimilating learning material, coping with the olume of material and prioritising the importance of components of the material reproduction, where little or no effort is made to understand but instead information is reproduced to complete the task or achieve the minimum required standard application directed, which is characterised by the application of learning material to concrete situations in order to gain understanding and lastly, center directed learning, which involves attempts to gain a darksomeer understanding of learning material and to draw on existing and related knowledge to achieve critical understanding.Vermunts Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) was developed as a diagnostic tool for use in a higher education context. Measurement. The degree to which each of the four styles is favoured is assessed using Vermunts LSI (Vermunt, 1994). The LSI comprises 20 subscales and 120 items relating to study strategies, motives and mental models. Individuals respond to statements along a ve-point scale according to the degree to which the statement is descriptive of their behaviour or the extent to which they agree with the statement.Comments. Vermunts (1992) own reports of acceptable reliability and validity of the LSI received some support form Busato, Prins, Elshout, and Hamaker (1998) who conrmed the existence of four factors corresponding to learning styles described by Vermunt. The in? uence of Kolb, Honey and Mumford, and Entwistle and Tait (see below) all seem present in Vermunts approach to the assessment of learning styles. Entwistle et al. s Approaches to plain Inventory (Learning-Centred Process-Based Approach / Information Processing Style)Model. Based on earli er work by Marton and Saljo (1976) Entwistle, Hanley, and Hounsel (1979) developed an instrument for assessing learning style which focuses on the level of engagement or depth of processing applied during learning. The proposed model centres around four modes of orientation of the learner meaning orientation reproduction orientation achieving orientation and holistic orientation. Tendencies towards particular combinations of orientations identify individuals as conforming to one of he following learning styles deep (intention to understand, relating ideas, use of evidence, and active learning) surface (intention to reproduce, unrelated memorising, passive learning, and fear of failure) strategical (study organisation, time management, alertness to assessment demands, and intention to excel) and apathetic ( leave out of direction and lack of interest). Measurement. The original 64-item ASI has undergone a number of revisions, its most radical in 1994 when it was abbreviated to 38 i tems, and then to 44 items in 434 S. Cassidy Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. om 1995 (Entwistle & Tait, 1995). The revised ASI (RASI) is a 44-item self-report inventory of learning activities using a Likert scale response format. The RASI now identies six approaches to learning deep approach surface approach strategic approach lack of direction academic self-condence and metacognitive awareness of studying. Comments. The ASI inventory has been used extensively in educational research and a recent study examining the psychometric properties of the RASI and its utility in an educational setting recommends its continued use for educational management and research (Duff, 2000).Biggs Study Processes Questionnaire (SPQ) (Learning-Centred Process-Based Approach / Information Processing Style) Model and measurement. Entwistles model was further developed by Biggs (1985) to incorporate an extended motivational dimension dened as intrinsic, extrinsic and achievement orientation. Biggs study processes measure includes both a strategy dimension? deep/surface? and a motivational dimension? deep/surface. Measurement. Originally a 42-item self-report questionnaire, the revised two-factor SPQ (Biggs, Kember, & Leung, 2001) has 20 items and provides scores in relation to strategy (deep/surface) and otive (deep/surface). An overall composite score is indicative of a consistently deep or surface approach to learning. Achieving approach is no longer garbled out as in earlier versions. Schmecks Inventory of Learning Processes (ILP) (Learning-Centred Process-Based Approach / Information Processing Style) Model. Schmeck et al. s (1977) learning processes style construct is developed around the belief that it is the quality of thinking during learning which affects the learning outcome.Like the models proposed by Entwistle and Biggs, the learning process model follows the work of Marton and Saljo (1976), focusing on learning orientations wit h an emphasis on information processing (Duff, 2000). The four subscales of the ILP are price reductionanalysis elaborative processing fact retention and study methods (Rayner & Riding, 1997). Measurement. The ILP was originally a 62-item self-report inventory with the four subscales identied above. A revised version (ILP-R) has clx items and seven subscales (Schmeck, Geisler-Brenstein, & Cercey, 1991).However, each version of the ILP has come under heavy rebuke and Richardson (2000) concludes that the ILP cannot be recommended for use in investigating student learning. Learning Styles 435 Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Hunt et al. s Conceptual Level Model (Learning-Centred Process-Based Approach / Information Processing Style) Model. Hunt, Butler, Noy, and Rosser (1978) described learning style in terms of an individuals need for structure and the conditions under which that individual will learn most effectively.Students requiring a highly structured learning environment, who are impulsive and concrete, are described as having a low conceptual level (CL). High CL students are independent, inquiring, self-assertive, and have little or no need for structure. The aim of the model therefore is to match students learning style with the most appropriate methods of teaching. Measurement. The Paragraph Completion Test requires individuals to complete and cypher on six incomplete sentences.Because responses are scored according to their degree of complexity, scoring and interpretation of the test requires specialist training (De Bello, 1990). Comments. Suedfeld and Coren (1992) reported an association between conceptual level and divergent thinking and support the existence of the construct as a cognitive style rather than a mental ability. Some evidence for the validity of the CL model was presented by McLachlan and Hunt (1973) who found that low CL students showed signicant benet in their learning from a high as opp osed to a low structure teaching method.It was also reported that teaching method did not impact signicantly on learning in high CL students. In line with such ndings, Hunt believes that although teaching needs to be geared towards students learning style to facilitate learning, there may be a developmental component to style which would allow for teaching methods to become gradually less structured to encourage more independent learning. Dunn et al. s Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Learning-Centred Preference-Based Approach / Instructional Preference / Social Interaction)Model and measurement. Dunn, Dunn and Prices (1989) LSI is a 100-item selfreport questionnaire asking individuals to respond to items relating to the key factors of the construct environmental (light, sound, temperature, and design) emotional (structure, persistence, motivation, and responsibility) sociological (pairs, peers, adults, self, and group) physical (perceptual strengths auditory, visual, tactile, kinae sthetic, mobility, intake, and time of day) and psychological (global-analytic, impulsive-re? ctive, and cerebral dominance). Versions of the scale have been developed for use with primary and secondary school children and with adults (the Productivity Environmental Preferences Survey). The factors are reported independently to provide proles which can be used to guide the edifice of the learning situation, material and teaching approach. 436 S. Cassidy Comments. Currys (1987) review of different learning/cognitive style models reports the LSI as having one of the highest reliability and validity ratings.The LSI has also been identied as being practitioner oriented and the most widely used assessment for learning style in elementary and secondary schools (Keefe, 1982). Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Riechmann and Grashas (1974) Style of Learning Interaction Model (LearningCentred Preference-Based Approach / Instructional Preference / S ocial Interaction) Model. Described as a social interaction scale (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993), the style of learning interaction model focuses on learner preferences but introduces social and affective dimensions to the measurement of style.The three dimensions described by the model are avoidant-participant competitivecollaborative and dependentindependent. The model incorporates the belief that style is, to some degree, ? uid and will alter according to the learning situation. Measurement. The Student Learning Styles Scale (SLSS) is a 90-item scale presented in two versions, one to assess class style and one to assess individual style. Comments. Rayner and Riding (1997) note the similarity between the style of learning interaction model and the model proposed by Dunn et al. (1989) because of the focus on learning preferences.Ramirez and Castenadas (1974) Child Rating inning (Learning-Centred Cognitive Skills-Based Approach / Cognitive Personality Style / Instructional Preference / Social Interaction) Model and measurement. The model incorporates the cognitive style dimension eld-dependence/eld-independence (Witkin, 1962) and focuses particularly on ethnical differences and minority groups. Field-independence is viewed as lordly because its associated traits (detail orientated, independent and sequential) are those which Ramirez believes are rewarded by schools.The Child Rating Form is a direct observation tool measuring behaviour frequencies which is complete by teachers or can be completed as a self-report questionnaire by the student. The Edmunds Learning Style Identication Exercise (ELSIE) (Reinert, 1976) (Learning-Centred Cognitive Skills-Based Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model and measurement. Described as a form of assessment which aims to provide the teacher with information which will be used to work to the students strengths or preferred mode of responding to learning stimuli (Rayner & Riding, 1997, p. 9), the ELSIE aims to identify t he individuals natural perceptual modality in the context of a learning situation. The 50 one-word items of the instrument assess Learning Styles 437 response in terms of imagery, verbalisation, sound, and affect. Similarities between ELSIE and several other models including those of Dunn et al. (1989), Hill (1976) and Keefe and Monks (1986 the NASSP-LSP) have been noted. Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. comHills Cognitive Style Interest Inventory (Learning-Centred Cognitive Skills-Based Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Dening learning style in terms of the unique way in which an individual searches for meaning, Hill (1976) used a process of cognitive style mapping, attempting to establish perceptual modality (auditory/visual), modalities of illation (such as critical thinking and hypothesis testing), and cultural determinants in order to integrate learning style with curriculum design. Hill labelled the resulting construct edu cational cognitive style.Measurement. The Cognitive Style Interest Inventory is a 216-item self-report questionnaire designed to assess educational cognitive style using the following categories symbols and their meaning (perceptual modality) modalities of inference and cultural determinants. There is also an interview component to the measure. Comments. The instrument itself suffers from a lack of empirical support (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993), poor reliability and validity (Curry, 1987) and has been criticised for the elaborate and time-consuming nature of the instrument (De Bello, 1990).De Bello (1990) draws comparisons between Hills model and both Ramirez and Castenadas (1974) model, because of the identication of cultural differences, and Dunn et al. s (1989) model because of the in? uence of peer and family orientation. Letteris Learner typesetters cases (Learning-Centred Cognitive Skills-Based Approach / Cognitive Personality Style) Model. Viewing learning essentially as inf ormation processing involving the effective storage and retrieval of information, Letteri (1980) was concerned with the diagnosis of useless cognitive processing and advocated interventions teaching effective cognitive skills.The model identied three types of learner Type 1 is re? ective and analytic Type 3 is impulsive and global with a lack of direction and Type 2 falls midway between Types 1 and 3 in approach to learning. Letteri provided evidence linking Type 1 learners with above average and type 3 learners with below average academic success. Measurement. Letteris instrument represents a number of existing cognitive dimensions, including eld-independence/eld-dependence, impulsivityre? exivity, 438 S. Cassidy scanning/focussing and levelling/sharpening, which are assessed through a series of bipolar continuums.In general, bipolar extremes correspond to either wholist (global) or analytic characteristics. Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Keefe and Monks (1986) Learning Style Prole (Learning-Centred Cognitive SkillsBased Approach / Cognitive Personality Style, Instructional Preference and Social Interaction) Model. Keefe and Monks (1986) Learning Style Prole (LSP) was the result of extensive re-examination of existing learning style models with the aim of developing a single instrument capable of assessing learning style across the range of already established characteristics.The LSP assesses style in three areas cognitive skills, including information processing and memory perceptual response to visual and auditory stimuli and study and instructional preferences, including motivation and environmental preferences. The model is intended for use in the development of educational programmes and focuses on the development of effective cognitive skills for learning. Measurement. The LSP is a 126-item assessment tool for secondary students which includes self-report items and cognitive tasks (derived from the EFT).Re sponses are computer scored and provide students with an individual learning style prole. Comments. Not surprisingly, given its origins, the LSP has been found to fit signicantly with other instruments, most notably Dunn et al. s (1989) LSI and Reinharts (1976) ELSIE (Curry, 1987 Keefe & Monks, 1986). Commenting on these reported correlations, De Bello (1990) notes Currys (1987) concerns regarding the reliability and validity of ELSIE. Learning Styles in Action? Some Examples Interest in dening, characterising and studying the associated effects of learning style results? ainly? from its distinction from ability and its association with performance. Whereas the relationship between ability and performance is relatively straightforward, such that performance improves with increased ability, the effects of style on performance are contingent on the nature of the task. For example, imagers are likely to perform better on pictorially-based tasks than on verbal-based tasks (Riding, 1997 ). In support of the independence of learning style and intelligence, Riding and Pearson (1994) found that there were no signicant correlations between intelligence? s measured by the British Abilities Scale? and the wholistanalytic and verbalimager dimensions of learning style. A less clear distinction between learning style and personality is presented (Riding & Wigley, 1997), although only a tentative link is reported. The identication of an individual characteristic, separate form Learning Styles 439 ability, which impacts on learning performance has led to the application of learning style theory and measurement in a number of diverse areas. Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. andfonline. com Academic Achievement Cassidy and Eachus (2000) used the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (Tait & Entwistle, 1996) to measure learning style in undergraduate students. They found that academic achievement was positively correlated with a strategic approach, negatively correlated with an apathetic approach, and unrelated to a deep approach to learning. Learning style was also found to correlate signicantly with other academic performance-related factors such as academic self-efcacy and academic locus of control.Clinical Training in Medical Schools McManus, Richards, Winder, and Sproston (1998) found, in a large-scale prospective study of two cohorts of medical students at a London medical school, that the students learning styles, but not their nal examination results, were related to the amount of knowledge gained from clinical experience. Using an abbreviated 18-item version of the Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1987) they reported positive correlations between strategic and deep learning styles and amount of knowledge gained from clinical experience. charge DevelopmentIn reviewing weaknesses in current practices within industry towards the retention and development of individuals labelled as high ? yers, Bates (1994) lists learning style as one key factor. Bates cites Honey and Mumfords (1986) model of learning style as an appropriate model for individual learning and one capable of encompassing a framework for high ? yer development. In the move to cultivate the top managers of the future, Bates calls for individual learning styles to be taken into account through the provision of a variety of learning situations which should create the opportunity for the development of a full range of styles.Police Training In a review of existing methods of police training in the U. S. , Birzer (2003) criticises traditional behavioural approaches in favour of instructional methods which fuck individual differences in learning. Citing recent studies identifying individual approaches to learning, Birzer illustrates the paradoxical way in which much police training is currently delivered with little regard for individual differences in learning, and calls for a more student-centred approach to training in the future.These examples illustrate the range of potential applications of learning style and underline the need to promote clarication and rationalisation in the eld. 440 S. Cassidy Educational Psychology 2004. 24419-444. downloaded from www. tandfonline. com Working with Learning Style The researcher or practitioner entering the area of learning style may well do so with some sense of trepidation given the volume, diversity and apparent dissociation of writing, theory and sensualism in the eld. De Bello (1990) notes that there exist almost as many denitions as there do theorists in the area.For the academic concerned with pure theory this may offer an exciting

Case Discussion: Learning Curve “B” †Assignment Essay

What do you estimate the buyer should pay per building block for the next 700 pieces assuming the supplier demonstrates a 75% acquire edit out? What if the look intoing rate is actually 85%? What do you estimate is the per unit cost of the next 700 pieces?1.A$178/unit at a 75% information Curve212/unit at an 85% Learning Curve2. infra what conditions can we use learning curves to estimate prices? In other words, when does the learning curve apply?2. AThe Learning Curve is applicable when apply for new products or processes that have a high potential for improvement, such(prenominal) as producing a technically complex item for the first time, or when an item has high direct-labor content.3.Why can we use rough estimates when applying learning curves?3. AAssuming a reduction in time will pursue a predictable pattern, and because it is predictable, we can develop estimates.4.Why do manual processes have intercourse greater learning curves than automated processes?4. AThe worke r has the ability to learn and improve through repetitive effort and increased efficiency.5.Are there factors excessively learning that can help reduce costs as majority increases?5. AModifications to the fruit process such as introducing new production methods, substituting increased automation for labor, or updating process technology.

Star dust relationships

sea captain Shakespe atomic number 18 mentor of youth In the delineation Stardust, a movie astir(predicate) a boy meet a man though a voyage for make love, relationships play a break role in the plot. Temptation sent the main character Tristan on a Journey that pass on change the course of his life. Tristan eventually call ups the fall star and the relationship between Yvaine and Tristan has begun. Tristan and Yvaine reveal many social occasions along their Journey especially while meeting Captain Shakespe ar.The things they learn from Captain Shakespe argon are that, there are ife epochs to mannikin imports to destroy, Tristan leads a man and they both learn that received love is powerful in motion of them. Tristans lust towards capital of Seychelles has sent him on a Journey to find the travel star, which has fallen on the other human face of the wall, a place where people from England are not to cross. When Tristan finds the star, Yvaine, he takes her on the Jour ney back to the wall. Eventually aft(prenominal) a period of time they end up in the clouds where they are picked up by the terrifying captain Shakespeare.Captain Shakespeare is a man iding something else, something that he wouldnt show some integrity he doesnt trust, hiding the fact that he has a very soft side. He devised a way to get Tristan and Yvaine to the wall. During that time he shows Tristan how to fght and Yvaine to waltz, the whole time trying to hide this soft side he has, even though he is overflowing with joy. He reveals to Yvaine about the known fact that she is a star since she has been glowing brighter every twenty-four hour period and he thinks he knows scarcely why. This mentor to pupil relationship is one that relates to many different things, such as the kids learning rom their parents.The second thing these ii learn from Captain Shakespeare is that there are lifetimes to build and seconds to destroy. This means what it sounds like, one has a whole lifetime to build a reputation for them, while yet there are seconds to destroy. Captain Shakespeare is a fine representation of this for he himself has a very large, and inaccurate, reputation to proceed. macrocosm the captain of the Sky vessel and son of the legendary Captain Ghostmaker, he is known as a blood thirsty killer who is hoodlum as nails.He chose his name Shakespeare because of the English poet and playwright, but his crew sees it as oscillate spear, or shaking a spear. Under his tough outside captain Shakespeare could be called a softy, he likes to dress up as a woman sometimes to express his true feelings. He will later be caught in the action by Prince Septimus, one of the 2 remaining princes attempting to track down Yvaine, the fallen star. Captain Shakespeares crew, after chasing Septimus moody the vessel, sees him dressed up as a woman with makeup on and says that they all knew he was whoopsie.They wouldnt have viewed as anything different then as their captain no mat ter how he was, which also shows that reputation isnt exactly everything. The last thing that Captain Shakespeare teaches Tristan is that love is right in cause of him. Tristan originally went to find the star for the girl of his dreams capital of Seychelles, she gives him a week to find the star and bring it back to her or she will marry Humphrey. Victoria wants to bought for her love and when Yvaine asks Tristan to break up ner some more about Victoria Tristan nas no more to say about her.He never ully realizes what he has in front of him until he meets Captain Shakespeare. Shakespeare has seen Tristan and Yvaine grow to be different from the people that arrived on the vessel at the beginning of their Journey. Tristan now has long hair, a steel and the skills to go with the sword. Yvaine is no longer in a bathrobe and has learned to waltz. The two have changed into bigger and better people. During the time in which Yvaine and captain Shakespeare are dancing Tristan takes Yvaine away from Shakespeare and dances with her, as they dance she begins to glow as she miles and laughs at things Tristan says and does.This makes captain Shakespeare smile. Before the two leave captain Shakespeare gives Tristan a thing of lightening and a whisper, in which he said that Tristans true love is really right in front of him obviously what he was saying, is that Yvaine is his true love. This in turn, turns out to be true for Tristan and Yvaine become married and Tristan becomes king. Captain Shakespeare teaches Tristan 3 main things that love can sometimes be right in front of you, that there is a lifetime to build and seconds to destroy, and shows and eaches Tristan how to become a man.Tristan and Yvaine become married and Tristan learns who his mother really is. In Tristan becoming a man he goes to Victoria and instead of throwing the rock at his window, a childlike thing to do, he knocks on her door to tell her that he doesnt want be and she needs to grow up. Then as he is leaving stands up to Humphrey and proves even more that he has self-aggrandizing into something more. This is how Tristan and Yvaine grow into different people through the wonderful shaping detainment of Captain Shakespeare.